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Saturday, December 5, 2009

道家思想发展简史和影响

  有个人,关于他的生身父母和出生日期有好几种说法,而且一开始他连正式的名字也没有,直到能在社会上大显身手了,他才有了自己的名分。再以后,虽然人们遇到困难和挫折时,不时地请他出来救局,同时经常在暗地里采纳他的主张,但总的说来,他已经退居二线,经常处于一种不得志的状态了。—— 这个人就是我们所说的道家思想。

  人们公认,道家思想是老子创立的,他的思想集中在一部五千字的著作——《道德经》中。鉴于老子的崇高地位,后来道家学派的宗教形式——道教将其尊称为太上老君。然而这位太上老君的生活年代和身份却是众说纷纭,直到现在也没有完全的定论。有人说他是春秋末期的老聃,孔子曾多次向他请教;有人说他是楚国的老莱子,曾以孝闻名天下;又有人说他是战国早期的太史儋,曾与关尹在函谷关相会;还有些儒家的狂热支持者认为它比道家的另一位巨擘——庄子生活的年代还要晚。不过1993年出土的郭店楚简已经完全证明,《道德经》这部伟大的著作至少在战国早期就已经开始有了广泛的流传,后来虽经多次修改,但在大体上保持了原貌。

  在《道德经》流传的过程中,当时的人从中汲取了智慧和营养,又形成了许多不同的思想流派,其中影响较大的有主张“为我”追求个性自由的杨朱学派,有试图以水为基本要素构筑宇宙模式的关尹学派,有主张以道生法热衷于政治的黄老学派,有主张逍遥自在追求精神自由的庄子学派等。他们和当时的儒家学派、墨家学派、名家学派、法家学派等互相争论、互相影响,呈现出一幅“道术为天下裂”、百家争鸣百花齐放的场面。

  不过,与儒家、墨家等不同,虽然在《道德经》的影响下出现了众多的思想流派,但在春秋战国时期,并没有道家这个统一的概念。所以说到当时的显学时,只提儒墨两家,不提道家。

  杨朱学派和庄子学派都曾在社会上产生过一时的轰动效应,但在当时,声势最为浩大影响最为持久的是与现实政治紧密相关的黄老学派。它分为南北两个流派,南方黄老学派的思想主要反映在《文子》(汉简残本)、《黄帝四经》、《鹖冠子》等著作中,而北方黄老学派集中在齐地的稷下学派中,其思想主要反映在《管子》这部著作中。在吕不为主政秦国期间,又有一大批黄老学派的人物来到秦国,他们配合吕不韦,以黄老思想为指导,吸收了儒墨名法学派的诸多主张,成就了一部辉煌的巨著——《吕氏春秋》。

  紧随着百家思想融合的,是政治大一统局面的形成。不过我国第一个大一统的王朝——秦朝实行的并非是黄老思想,更不是后来风风光光的儒家,而是黄老道家的孽子——法家思想,它主张“禁绝百家,以吏为师”,使包括黄老道家在内的百家思想遭到了沉重打击,但一些思想的星火还在民间保存。

  法家思想的严酷直接导致了秦朝的灭亡,在接下来的另一个朝代——汉朝建立后不久,当时的丞相曹参从稷下黄老学派的发源地——齐地,找到了黄老思想的星火,并将其引向全国,成为了当时整个国家的指导思想。

  在黄老学派“无为而治”的思想指导下,长期战乱带来的创伤很快愈合,一个名为“文景之治”的盛世开始了。在这样的背景下,司马谈(司马迁之父)第一次提出了道家的概念,使道家思想有了自己正式的名称。他说:“道家无为,又曰无不为。其实易行,其辞难知。其术以虚无为本,以因循为用。无成势,无常形,故能究万物之情。不为物先,不为物后,故能为万物主。”他又说道家“因阴阳之大顺,采儒、墨之善,撮名、法之要,与时迁移,应物变化,立俗施事,无所不宜;旨约而易操,事少而功多。”

  司马谈所说的道家其实主要指黄老学派,后来,人们进一步拓展这个概念,把所有在《道德经》影响下形成的思想流派,如杨朱学派、关尹学派、庄子学派、黄老学派等,统统归入道家的行列,使道家思想呈现出斑驳芜杂的特点,这也是许多道家思想被归入杂家的原因。

  在文景之治的末期,还出现了道家思想巅峰性的著作——《淮南子》。另外,司马迁的《史记》也渗透了浓厚的黄老道家的思想,由于“无为而治”带来的繁荣,司马迁还空前绝后地讨论了经济运行规律和企业家的精神。

  不过,当时黄老思想成为主流,是建立在天子、诸侯和军功阶层三权分立、皇权受到一定程度制约的基础上的。汉景帝平定“七国之乱”后,诸侯势力大大削弱、军功阶层也是一代不如一代,权力膨胀起来的皇帝,再也无法容忍黄老道家“清静自然”的约束,于是,主张尊君隆礼的儒家思想取代了道家思想,成为了国家的正统思想。这样的局面此后延续了将近两千年。

  儒家思想取代了道家思想成为了国家的正统思想后,黄老道家思想并没有完全消失。大多数时候,统治者像汉宣帝说的那样,是“霸王道杂用之”。即有时是“外儒内法”,有时是“外用儒术,内用黄老”,每当君权受到主客观条件的部分限制时,黄老道家就会复活,并带来经济文化上的繁荣,因此民间有“治世道,乱世佛,由治到乱是儒家”的说法。

  当声势浩大的黄老思潮在统治者那里变为地下暗河后,春秋战国发展起来的理性精神暂时遇到了挫折,整个社会笼罩在一片儒家宣扬的“天人感应”的神秘主义气氛中。与此相适应,民间道家思想也向神秘主义方向发展,并在吸收了许多儒家和墨家的思想的基础上,和先秦时就已广泛存在的神仙方术相结合,最终形成了我国土生土长的宗教——道教。

  道教在社会上产生巨大的影响与汉末农民起义有关。这次起义主要是以道教的两个重要派别——太平道和五斗米道为依托发动的。最后,太平道被镇压,而五斗米道被曹操招安。于是道教走上了和平发展的道路。

  与此相反,一些善于独立思考的知识分子更愿意从理性的角度探讨问题。王充首先在他的杰作——《论衡》一书中,对蔓延于整个社会的神秘主义思潮进行了有力的批判。不久,这种怀疑思想在魏晋时期就变成了一种名为玄学的思潮,整个知识界都开始思考自然人性和儒家名教之间的关系,王弼主张双向转化、儒道会通;竹林七贤的灵魂人物阮籍和嵇康主张“越名教而任自然”;接下来的郭象虽然仍主张调和儒道矛盾,但他的独化论使道家思想攀上了一个新的高峰。另外,陶渊明的《桃花源记》、鲍敬言的无君论、伪托战国时列子所写的《列子》以及稍晚一些出现的《黄帝阴符经〉也是这一时期道家思想的重要成就之一。

  在玄学思潮的推动下,追求精神自由的庄子思想重新复活,成了后世人们心目中道家思想的正统。整个社会开始推崇那些放浪形骸的清谈之士。这既产生了空谈误国的负效应,又大大提高了国人的抽象思维能力,体现了当时中国人的精神自觉。不但为当时佛教文化的广泛传播创造了条件,还推动了当时科技和文化艺术的飞跃发展,使魏晋南北朝时代成为一个文化艺术极为灿烂的时代。

  玄学思潮过后,道家作为一个独立的思想流派已不复存在,它更多的是依托其宗教形式——道教存在和发展,并通过儒释道融合的方式附体还魂(即附着在理学禅宗等的身上,表现出道家思想的灵魂)。

  受玄学思潮的影响,也受外来宗教——佛教的刺激,道教在这一时期向上层和精致化方向发展,其杰出的代表人物葛洪在《抱朴子内篇》一书中,提出以道为内 ,以儒为外,使神仙方术与儒家纲常名教相结合的教义,从而为道教的进一步发展奠定了理论基础。此后,从东晋后期至南北朝时代,中国南北方都出现了由门阀士族道教徒发起的道教改革活动,道教的经典、教义、教规和教派组织得到改造和充实发展 ,以重视经典科教和神仙方术为主要宗旨的上清派、灵宝派 、新天师道、楼观道等新兴道派相继出现,成为道教发展的主流。新兴道派得到官方统治者的承认,为后来儒释道三教鼎立并盛的格局奠定了基础。

  唐宋两朝,官方对道教极为尊崇,道教享有国教的称号。官方主持多次编修《 道藏》,研究道经和教义、科仪的学者纷纷涌现,对道教学术文化的发展有较大的贡献。成玄英对老庄思想的进一步阐述和其提出的重玄之道、司马承祯的《坐忘论》、谭峭的《化书》、《无能子》的无君论、陈抟的太极图、张伯端的内丹术、邓牧的《伯牙琴》均是当时道家道教思想的重要成果。到了南宋金元对峙时期,道教内部发生重大变革,新兴道派纷纷涌现。这些道派在教义上的共同特点是倡导三教合一,鼓吹儒释道教同源一致。元朝统一之后,南北各道派重新组合,形成以内丹为主的全真道和符箓为主的正一道两大派系,流传至今。

  明清以后直到现在,道教趋于衰落,社会地位逐渐下降。尤其是近代各种打击封建迷信的活动,对道教伤害最为严重。在这期间。除了《菜根谭〉、傅山的启蒙思想和诸子学、陈撄宁的仙道学说和萧天石的学说值得一提外,道教教义、教制总的说来无大发展,但道教思想却进一步通俗化,流传于广大社会。被道士们加以通俗解释的内丹术,传向社会各界,在儒士中影响尤深。

  道家思想在我国传统文化中的地位仅次于儒家。虽然玄学思潮过后,道家作为一个独立的思想流派已不复存在,但它对统治者、知识分子和下层社会却产生了经久不衰的影响。

  对统治者而言,道家黄老术是他们治国的秘技之一。在许多明君身上,都可以看到黄老思想的影子,唐玄宗、宋徽宗、朱元璋、康熙都曾专门给《道德经》作注,虽然他们经常从法家的角度歪曲老子思想,但不可否认的是,“文景之治”、“贞观之治”、“开元盛世”、“康熙盛世”无一不是黄老思想的产物,而两宋时期经济文化的高度繁荣、明末清初的启蒙思潮以及今天改革开放的成就,也无一不与黄老思想有密切关系。当然,统治者施行无为而治的黄老思想时,一般严格地限定在经济文化方面,至于政治领域,除了明末清初社团组织比较活跃外,民间政治力量从来没有得到过真正发展。这一局面甚至延续到了今天。

  道家思想中,对知识分子影响最大的是老庄学派的思想。这也是后世人们心目中道家思想的正统。对那些想在古代专制社会中保持精神自由的知识分子,如陶渊明、李白等,老庄思想是他们最好的安身立命之所;对那些超前于时代的思想巨人,如王充、李贽、黄宗羲等,道家思想是他们批判社会的有力武器;对那些暂时受挫的官场人士,如柳宗元、苏东坡等,道家思想是他们最好的安慰剂,所谓“达则兼济天下,困则独善其身”是也。另外,道家思想也深刻地影响了知识分子的审美观念和文化艺术创作,使之表现出独特的简练含蓄的民族风格。道家思想还对理学和禅宗思想的兴起起到了关键的作用。

  对世俗社会而言,追求长生不老的道教更具有吸引力。道教不但给了千千万万的人以宗教上的安慰,还通过其宗教活动为中国文化乃至世界文化的发展作出了独特贡献。许多道士如魏征、陈抟、刘伯温还积极参与政治,对中国历史产生了重要的影响。道教对我国古代科技的贡献无人能及,就连先秦最具科学精神的墨家思想也是靠道教保存下来的。中医、火药、天元术是道教最具代表性的科学成就。道教音乐融我国民间音乐和西域特色于一身,被誉为仙曲和民族音乐的瑰宝。至于伴随修炼养生实践和探索发展起来的道教气功和武术,今天则已风靡世界。道教教团对文献典籍、文物古迹的保护也不容忽略。仅以哲学为例,道教经典《道藏》中不仅收有全部道家哲学著作及其注本,而且还收有儒家外诸子百家著作,如《韩非子》、《尹文子》、《公孙龙子》、《墨子》,《鬼谷子》、《淮南鸿烈解》等法、名、墨、纵横、杂等诸家文献。可以说,《道藏》不仅是道教的宝藏,也是中华民族文化的宝藏。此外,民间的许多风俗也深受道教的影响。

  16世纪,《老子》一书开始传至西方,并对西方社会产生了越来越大的影响。不少著名学者把自己的科学发现归功于老子这个东方圣人的启示。辩证法大师黑格尔、著名文学家托尔斯泰、量子力学创始人波尔、自由主义大师哈耶克、现代哲学家海德格尔等人都对道家思想青睐有加,尼采评论《道德经》一书说:“像一个永不枯竭的井泉,满载宝藏,放入汲桶,垂手可得。”著名数学家陈省身说:“1943年,我在美国认识爱因斯坦。他书架上的书并不多,但有一本很吸引我,是老子的《道德经》德文译本。西方有思想的科学家,大多喜欢老庄哲学,崇尚道法自然。”

  今天,在德国、法国、英国和日本、美国等发达国家,都在悄悄兴起一股“老子热”。据联合国教科文组织的统计,老子《道德经》的发行量,在欧洲和世界各地仅次于《圣经》。连冰岛这样地广人稀的岛国都有两种以上的译本。在德国,《道德经》一书差不多每个家庭都有一本。在奥地利、瑞士等国,许多有文化素养的人士,常常把《道德经》赠送给儿女作为结婚的贺礼。美国前总统里根 1988年在“国情咨文”讲话中说:“中国的老子曰治大国,若烹小鲜。”从此,《道德经》身价倍增,有8个出版社争相出版该书。

  在近代中国,道家思想也出现了复活的迹象,魏源、严复、胡适、殷海光等人都曾对道家思想推崇有加,王国维的《人间词语》以庄学忘我之境阐发诗词创作的境界说,此说引人入胜,历久弥新。沈从文、鲁迅、林语堂等人受过道家思想深刻地影响。抗战期间,金岳霖就在《论道》等书中,将原始道家所创发的概念,如无极太极、动静、无有、混沌等范畴组成一个严密的逻辑系统,全新地改变了传统形上道论的内涵和面貌。汤用彤和蒙文通从严格的学院式的论著中,重建道家在学术史上的特殊地位。还有一些影响更为广大的儒道兼容的哲学家,如冯友 、熊十力,他们一向被视为新儒家的代表人物,但其哲学理论的内涵实际上主要是凭藉道家来建构的。

Thursday, December 3, 2009

A Brief History Of Taoism

Taoism, an indigenous traditional Chinese religion, dates back to some 1,800 year’s ago when Master Zhang Taoling of the Eastern Han Dynasty (25-220AD) formerly organized a religious Taoist group. In the long years of its evolution, Taoism had profound influence politically, economically, culturally and ideologically in ancient Chinese society and it is still functioning today.

During the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhang Taoling went and settled on Singing Crane Mountain (Mount Heming). He claimed that he had been imparted the “Mighty Commonwealth of the Orthodox Oneness (Zhengyi Meng Wei) by Supreme Master Lao Zi and he began producing and circulating books advocating Tao. His teachings centered on the summoning of deities, magic incantation and subduing of ghosts, as well as breathing exercises.

During the Wei Kingdom Period (220-265 DC), Celestial Master Taoism which was created by Zhang Taoling was suppressed and it declined. However, as Zhang Lu and his disciples moved north from Hanzhong, Celestial Master Taoism began to be revived in the regions where Supreme Peace Taoism had once been practiced. It then spread throughout of the country.

During the Western Jin period (265-316 AD) and the Eastern Jin (317-420 AD), some powerful families and scholars started to believe in Taoism. Taoism, which had started from the grass roots level, now penetrated the upper class and eventually became an integral part of the spiritual life of the ruling class.

As more and more scholars turned to Taoism, the Taoist educational level was thus enhanced. As a result, a vast body of Taoist scriptures was created to challenge Buddhism from India.

As the Taoist scriptures spread, three new Taoist sects came into being-namely, the High Purity (Shangqing), the Numinous Treasure (Lingbao) and the Three August Ones (Sanhuang ) sects.

In 589 AD, the Sui Dynasty (581–618) unified China. Different schools of Taoism then began a process of integration. The Maoshan School, which had evolved from the High Purity sect, became the dominant school in the south of the country and began to spread to the north. As both Buddhism and Taoism were practiced during the Sui Dynasty, Taoism developed rapidly, which paved the way for this religion to reach its zenith during the Tang Dynasty (618–907 AD).

Li Yuan, founder of the Tang Dynasty, made much use of public belief in Taoism in the struggle to overthrow the Sui Dynasty. When he assumed the throne, he announced that Lao Zi, the founder of Taoism was his ancestor (Lao Zi’s family name being Li and his given name Er). Except for Wu Zetian (the only Empress in Chinese history), all the Tang Emperors venerated Taoism.

The most influential development of Taoism during the Five Dynasty period (907-960AD) on later Taoism was the rise of the so-called inner alchemy created by Zhongli Quan and Lu Dongbin..

More schools of Taoism came into being during the period of the Song, Jin and Yuan dynasties (960-1368 AD). Taoism entered a new phase of development.

During the Northern Song Dynasty (960-1127 AD), the Maoshan school was still in a dominant position, and its lineage was very clear. The main new schools that appeared in this period were the Heavenly Heart (Tianxin) and Divine Heaven (Shenxiao) sects.
During the Southern Song Dynasty (1127-1279AD), Taoism was dominated by the sects collectively known as the Talisman of the Three Mountains (Mount Longhu, Maoshan and Gezao).

Furthermore, new sects, such as Shenxiao, Donghua and Qingwei were also active during this period.

Apart from a variety of old and new Talisman sects, there were also the Pure Brightness sect and the Southern Line Golden Elixir sect during the Southern Song Dynasty.

The Supreme Oneness (Taiyi), Great Tao (DaTao) and Complete Perfection (Quanzhen) doctrines ultimately became the Main forms of Taoism during the Jin Dynasty (1115-1234 AD). The Supreme Oneness doctrine lasted for about 200 years and eventually, by the end of the Yuan Dynasty, it had been incorporated into the Orthodox Oneness (Zhengyi) tradition. The Great Tao doctrine declined toward the end of the Yuan and was also incorporated into the Orthodox Oneness tradition. In the Yuan Dynasty, the Complete Perfection and Orthodox Oneness traditions became the two major Taoist schools.

After the founding of the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644 AD), Zhu Yuanzhang, the first Ming emperor, adopted a policy to both make use of and control religion in order to safeguard his rule as the country’s sole dominant power. As a result, Taoism began to decline.

Comparatively speaking, the Ming rulers favored the Orthodox Oneness tradition more than the Complete Perfection tradition. The former enjoyed a higher political status than the later. Zhu Yuanzhang believed that the sole purpose of the meditation practiced by the Complete Perfection sect was the meditation itself whereas the Orthodox Oneness tradition upheld human relationship and stressed social customs, which had played an important role in social stability. For this reason, he supported the Orthodox Oneness tradition.

The rulers of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911 AD) believed in Tibetan Buddhism. They had little knowledge of Taoism and therefore did not support nor even restrict the development of Taoism. The early Qing emperors followed Ming rulers and adopted a policy of protecting Taoism because of the need to win over the Han Chinese. But from Qianlong’s reign onwards, Qing rulers began to impose strict control over Taoism, leading to its decreased political influence and stagnant organizational development.
During the century between the first Opium War (1840-1842) and the founding of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, China underwent a period of political chaos and the Chinese people suffered greatly from war and lived in great poverty.

Taoist structures in renowned mountains fell into disrepair and many Taoists left their temples. As a result, Taoism became more closely tied to ordinary people’s daily lives. Early during the Republic of China, in order to become established in modern society, Taoists tried to imitate the practice in Western countries by forming a national organization to protect their own interests. In 1912, a nationwide organization known as the Central Taoist Association was established in the White Cloud Temple in Beijing, with the Complete Perfection tradition as its backbone. At the same time, Zhang Yuanxu, the 62nd Celestial Master, set up the Taoist Federation of the Republic of China in Shanghai, with the Orthodox Oneness tradition as its backbone. Both organizations were rather loosely organized and no activities of great significance were recorded.

After China adopted its reform and opening-up policy in 1979, Chinese Taoists resumed the Complete Perfection tradition’s initiation ceremony and the Orthodox Oneness tradition’s talisman transmission rules.

Large-scale religious activities were also held, such as the Great Ritual Offering of All-Embracing Heaven. China’s Taoist community has established the China Taoist College and the Shanghai Taoist College to train large number of young and middle-aged priests; established academic institutions such as the China Taoist Culture Research Institute and convened several forums on Taoist culture; founded journals such as Chinese Taoism, Shanghai Taoism, Shaanxi Taoism and Fujian Taoism and published a number of books on Taoism.

Some 1,500 Taoist monasteries have been approved by governments at the county level and above for Taoists to carry out religious activities.

There are about 20,000 resident Taoists of the Complete Perfection tradition and tens of thousands of Taoist priests of the Orthodox Oneness tradition in addition to countless numbers of Taoist followers throughout the whole country. The ancient religion has now entered the 21st century with a brand-new look.